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Diocletian, AD 284-305

ROMAN EMPIRE: Diocletian. 284-305 AD. AR Argenteus (3.22gm). Laureate head of Diocletion right / four tetrarchs sacrificing over tripod, city walls with six turrets behind.

History of coin subject "Diocletian": Roman emperor (284 to 305), who restored efficient government to the empire after the near anarchy of the 3rd century. His reorganization of the fiscal, administrative, and military machinery of the empire laid the foundation for the Byzantine Empire in the East and temporarily shored up the decaying empire in the West. His reign is also noted for the last great persecution of the Christians. The Emperor Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus put an end to the disastrous phase of Roman history known as the "Military Anarchy" or the "Imperial Crisis" (235-284). He established an obvious military despotism and was responsible for laying the groundwork for the second phase of the Roman Empire, which is known variously as the "Dominate," the "Tetrarchy," the "Later Roman Empire," or the "Byzantine Empire." His reforms ensured the continuity of the Roman Empire in the east for more than a thousand years. Diocletian centralized the political authority. He developed policies, in which he put into effect an imperial system of values on different provincial people. Together with his Caesars, Diocletian was considered the restorer of the entire world. His team was believed to gain victory over barbarians, thus securing their world.

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Galerius, AD 305-311

Roman Empire Galerius AD 305-311 AR Argenteus (3.43 gm) issued as Caesar reverse Tetrarchs at campgate.

History of coin subject "Galerius": Roman emperor from 305 to 311, notorious for his persecution of Christians. Galerius was born of humble parentage and had a distinguished military career. On March 1, 293, he was nominated as caesar by the emperor Diocletian, who governed the Eastern part of the empire. Galerius divorced his wife and married Diocletian's daughter, Valeria. After ruling from Egypt from 293 to 295, Galerius assumed command of defensive operations against the Sasanians in 297. After being defeated, he then won a decisive victory that increased his influence with Diocletian. Galerius next proceeded to the Balkans and won numerous victories in the region. A staunch pagan, he persuaded the emperor to initiate the persecution of the Christians at Nicomedia in 303.

When Diocletian abdicated on May 1, 305, Galerius became augustus (senior emperor) of the East, ruling the Balkans and Anatolia. Technically he was subordinate to the Western ruler, Constantius Chlorus. But since Galerius had arranged the appointment of two of his favourites, Maximinus (his nephew) and Flavius Valerius Severus, to be caesars in both East and West, he was in effect the supreme ruler. When Constantius Chlorus died in 306, Galerius insisted that Severus govern the West as augustus, but he grudgingly conceded the subordinate title of caesar to Chlorus's son, Constantine, who was (correctly) suspected of Christian sympathies. Galerius's supremacy was, however, short-lived. Severus was soon overthrown (306) and killed by Maxentius (son of the former emperor Maximian). Galerius invaded Italy but was forced to retreat. In 308 he induced Diocletian and Maximian to meet him at Carnuntum on the Danube and to declare Maxentius a usurper. On November 11, Galerius proclaimed as augustus of the West his friend Licinius, who had effective control only in the region of the Danube.

A ruthless ruler, Galerius imposed the poll tax on the urban population and maintained the persecution of the Christians. In the winter of 310-311, however, he became incapacitated with a painful disease. Fearing, perhaps, that his illness was the vengeance of the Christian God, he issued on April 30, 311, an edict grudgingly granting toleration. Shortly afterward he died. He was succeeded by his nephew Maximinus Daia.

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Galerius, AD 305-311

Roman Empire Galerius AD 305-311 AR Argenteus (3.29 gm) issued as Caesar reverse Tetrarchs at campgate.

History of coin subject "Galerius": Roman emperor from 305 to 311, notorious for his persecution of Christians. Galerius was born of humble parentage and had a distinguished military career. On March 1, 293, he was nominated as caesar by the emperor Diocletian, who governed the Eastern part of the empire. Galerius divorced his wife and married Diocletian's daughter, Valeria. After ruling from Egypt from 293 to 295, Galerius assumed command of defensive operations against the Sasanians in 297. After being defeated, he then won a decisive victory that increased his influence with Diocletian. Galerius next proceeded to the Balkans and won numerous victories in the region. A staunch pagan, he persuaded the emperor to initiate the persecution of the Christians at Nicomedia in 303.

When Diocletian abdicated on May 1, 305, Galerius became augustus (senior emperor) of the East, ruling the Balkans and Anatolia. Technically he was subordinate to the Western ruler, Constantius Chlorus. But since Galerius had arranged the appointment of two of his favourites, Maximinus (his nephew) and Flavius Valerius Severus, to be caesars in both East and West, he was in effect the supreme ruler. When Constantius Chlorus died in 306, Galerius insisted that Severus govern the West as augustus, but he grudgingly conceded the subordinate title of caesar to Chlorus's son, Constantine, who was (correctly) suspected of Christian sympathies. Galerius's supremacy was, however, short-lived. Severus was soon overthrown (306) and killed by Maxentius (son of the former emperor Maximian). Galerius invaded Italy but was forced to retreat. In 308 he induced Diocletian and Maximian to meet him at Carnuntum on the Danube and to declare Maxentius a usurper. On November 11, Galerius proclaimed as augustus of the West his friend Licinius, who had effective control only in the region of the Danube.

A ruthless ruler, Galerius imposed the poll tax on the urban population and maintained the persecution of the Christians. In the winter of 310-311, however, he became incapacitated with a painful disease. Fearing, perhaps, that his illness was the vengeance of the Christian God, he issued on April 30, 311, an edict grudgingly granting toleration. Shortly afterward he died. He was succeeded by his nephew Maximinus Daia.

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Galerius, AD 305-311

Roman Empire, Galerius as Caesar, AD305-311. AR Argenteus (3.30g). Heraclea mint. Laureate head Galerius facing right / Four tetrarchs sacrificing over tripod before city enclosure with six turrets.

History of coin subject "Galerius": Roman emperor from 305 to 311, notorious for his persecution of Christians. Galerius was born of humble parentage and had a distinguished military career. On March 1, 293, he was nominated as caesar by the emperor Diocletian, who governed the Eastern part of the empire. Galerius divorced his wife and married Diocletian's daughter, Valeria. After ruling from Egypt from 293 to 295, Galerius assumed command of defensive operations against the Sasanians in 297. After being defeated, he then won a decisive victory that increased his influence with Diocletian. Galerius next proceeded to the Balkans and won numerous victories in the region. A staunch pagan, he persuaded the emperor to initiate the persecution of the Christians at Nicomedia in 303.

When Diocletian abdicated on May 1, 305, Galerius became augustus (senior emperor) of the East, ruling the Balkans and Anatolia. Technically he was subordinate to the Western ruler, Constantius Chlorus. But since Galerius had arranged the appointment of two of his favourites, Maximinus (his nephew) and Flavius Valerius Severus, to be caesars in both East and West, he was in effect the supreme ruler. When Constantius Chlorus died in 306, Galerius insisted that Severus govern the West as augustus, but he grudgingly conceded the subordinate title of caesar to Chlorus's son, Constantine, who was (correctly) suspected of Christian sympathies. Galerius's supremacy was, however, short-lived. Severus was soon overthrown (306) and killed by Maxentius (son of the former emperor Maximian). Galerius invaded Italy but was forced to retreat. In 308 he induced Diocletian and Maximian to meet him at Carnuntum on the Danube and to declare Maxentius a usurper. On November 11, Galerius proclaimed as augustus of the West his friend Licinius, who had effective control only in the region of the Danube.

A ruthless ruler, Galerius imposed the poll tax on the urban population and maintained the persecution of the Christians. In the winter of 310-311, however, he became incapacitated with a painful disease. Fearing, perhaps, that his illness was the vengeance of the Christian God, he issued on April 30, 311, an edict grudgingly granting toleration. Shortly afterward he died. He was succeeded by his nephew Maximinus Daia.

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Heraclius, AD 610-641

Heraclius. 610-641 AD. AV Solidus (4.34 gm). Constantinople mint. 632-635 AD. Heraclius, Heraclius Constantine and Heraclonas standing facing / Cross potent on three steps; monogram in right field; G/CONOB

History of coin subject "Heraclius": Heraclius, Byzantine emperor, born c. 575, Cappadocia died Feb. 11, 641, Constantinople Eastern Roman emperor (A.D.610-641) who reorganized and strengthened the imperial administration and the imperial armies but who, nevertheless, lost Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and Byzantine Mesopotamia to the Arab Muslims.

Heraclius was born in eastern Anatolia. His father, probably of Armenian descent, was governor of the Roman province of Africa when an appeal came from Constantinople to save the Eastern Roman Empire from the terror and incompetence of the emperor Phocas. The Governor equipped an expeditionary force and put his devout son, the blond and gray-eyed Heraclius, in command of it.

In October 610 Heraclius dropped anchor off Constantinople, deposed Phocas, and was crowned emperor of a crumbling state, occupied by invaders and wracked with internal dissension. Slavs swarmed over the Balkan Peninsula. The Persians occupied extensive parts of Anatolia. The Turkic Avars, who ruled over the Slavic and other tribes that occupied the region between the Don and the Alps, exacted tribute. With its economy disrupted, its administration disorganized, its army depleted and demoralized, its factions engaging in civil strife, its peasants enfeebled by excessive exactions, its religious dissenters alienated by persecution, and its authority challenged by a powerful aristocracy, the empire lacked the strength necessary to expel the invaders, and possibly even to survive.

In 614 the Persians conquered Syria and Palestine, taking Jerusalem and what was believed to be Christ's Cross, and in 619 occupied Egypt and Libya. In an effort to placate the Avars, Heraclius met them at Thracian Heraclea (617 or 619). They sought to capture him, and he rode madly back to Constantinople, hotly pursued. Overlooking their perfidy, he finally made peace with them and was free to take the offensive against the Persians.

The next two years he devoted to campaigns in Armenia, the manpower of which was vital to the empire, and to a devastating invasion of Persia. In 625 Heraclius retired to Anatolia. He had encamped on the west bank of the Sarus River when the Persian forces appeared on the opposite bank. Many of his men rushed impetuously across the bridge and were ambushed and annihilated by the enemy.

Emerging from his tent, Heraclius saw the triumphant Persians crossing the bridge. The fate of the empire hung in the balance. Seizing his sword, he ran to the bridge and struck down the Persian leader. His soldiers closed rank behind him and beat back the foe.

In 626 the Persians advanced to the Bosporus, hoping to join the Avars in an assault on the land walls of Constantinople. But the Romans sank the primitive Avar fleet that was to transport Persian units across the Bosporus and repelled the unsupported Avar assault. Heraclius again invaded Persia and in December 627, after a march across the Armenian highlands into the Tigris plain, met the Persians near the ruins of Nineveh. There, astride his renowned war-horse, he killed three Persian generals in single combat, charged into enemy ranks at the head of his troops, killed the Persian commander, and scattered the Persian host.

No doubt he was an inspiring military leader who fired his army with religious fervour and whose personal intrepidity, imaginative tactics, and constant concern for his men evoked their love and loyalty. But he was also a cautious and calculating strategist who did not hesitate to employ religion to serve his military ends. Thus, when in 623 his victorious soldiers wanted to penetrate deeper into Persia, contrary to his plan to retire, he referred the matter to God. After his troops had fasted and prayed three days, he opened the Bible in their presence, apparently at random, and read a passage that could be interpreted only as a divine command to withdraw. Moreover, even though he fostered the crusading spirit, he waged war in a less inhumane manner than most of his contemporaries. He did not enslave or massacre the inhabitants of conquered towns and he treated his prisoners of war well, releasing them rather than butchering them when he could not feed them. His mercy contrasted sharply with Khosrow's acerbity and probably hastened his victory in Persia.

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